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ANSWERS
History
Adapted from Dillaha, T. A., M. L. Wolfe, A. Shirmohammadi, F.
W. Byne. 2001. ANSWERS-2000. In Non-Point Source Water Quality Models: Their Use
and Application. Final Report of USDA-CSREES
Southern Region Research Project S-273 "Development and Application of
Comprehensive Agricultural Ecosystems Models".
Beasley
and Huggins (1982) developed the original ANSWERS (Areal Nonpoint Source
Watershed Environment Response Simulation) model in the late 1970s. The model
was based on one of the first true distributed parameter hydrologic models
(Huggins and Monke, 1966). The original ANSWERS was a distributed parameter,
event-oriented, planning model developed to evaluate the effects of BMPs on
surface runoff and sediment loss from agricultural watersheds. ANSWERS
subdivides the watershed into a uniform grid of square cells. Land use, slopes,
soil properties, nutrients, crops, and management practices are assumed uniform
within each cell. Differences between cells allow the model to consider the
heterogeneous nature of watersheds and the site specific effectiveness of
individual BMPs. Typical cell sizes range from 0.4 to 1 ha with smaller cells
providing more accurate simulations. Ten to twelve parameter values must be
provided for each homogeneous cell. Within each cell, the model simulates
interception, surface retention/detention, infiltration using Holtan's method (Holtan,
1961), surface runoff, percolation through the infiltration control zone,
sediment detachment and sediment transport. Flow was from routed downslope to
adjacent overland flow cells or in channel cells. The model could simulate BMPs
such as conservation tillage, ponds, grassed waterways, tile drainage (Bottcher
et al., 1981) and other practices whose effects on the physically based model
input parameters could be described. An original weakness of the ANSWERS model
was its erosion model, which was largely empirical and simulated only gross
sediment transport. The model was modified in the early 1980s to simulate the
particle size distribution of eroded sediment (Dillaha and Beasley, 1983) using
Yalin's method (Yalin, 1961) to estimate sediment transport. Rewerts and Engel
(1991) developed GIS interfaces for this version of the model. In the late
1980s, phosphorus (Storm et al., 1988) and nitrogen (Dillaha et. al., 1988)
transport versions of the event-oriented model were developed. They considered
the transport of dissolved and adsorbed orthophosphorus, nitrate and dissolved
and adsorbed ammonium and TKN.
The
current version of the model, ANSWERS-2000, is a continuous simulation model
that was developed in the mid 1990s (Bouraoui and Dillaha, 1996). In this
version, the nutrient submodels were overhauled and improved infiltration (Green
and Ampt), soil moisture and plant growth components were added to permit
long-term continuous simulation. Bouraoui (1994) describes the current version
of the model in detail. ANSWERS-2000 simulates transformations and interactions
between four nitrogen pools including stable organic N, active organic N,
nitrate and ammonium. Transformations of nitrogen include mineralization
simulated as a combination of ammonification and nitrification, denitrification,
and plant uptake of ammonium and nitrate. The model maintains a dynamic
equilibrium between stable and active organic N pools. Four phosphorus pools are
simulated: stable mineral P, active mineral P, soil organic P and labile P.
Equilibrium is maintained between stable and active mineral P and between active
mineral P and labile P. Plant uptake of labile P and mineralization of organic P
are also simulated.
The
continuous version, ANSWERS-2000, was tested on two watersheds in Watkinsville,
Georgia, and performed well in predicting runoff, sediment, nitrate, dissolved
ammonium, sediment-bound TKN, and dissolved phosphorus losses from both
watersheds (Table 1 and Figures 2 to 8 for the P2 watershed). The model did not
predict sediment-bound ammonium losses from either watershed well. The model was
also tested on the 1153 ha Owl Run watershed in Virginia. The model performed
well for the largest storms, and cumulative predictions of runoff volume,
sediment yield, nitrate, ammonium, sediment-bound TKN, and orthophosphorus were
within 40% of the measured values (Table 2). In a practical application of
ANSWERS-2000, the model was run for eight years on a 225 ha subwatershed in the
Nomini Creek watershed in Virginia. Potentially critical source areas were
selected, and BMPs (conservation tillage) were then implemented on 10, 20, 30
and 100% of the cropland in the watershed. Targeting was found to significantly
increase the efficiency of BMP application with respect to water quality (Table
3). For example, nutrient reductions were 2.4 and 2.1 times as great on a per
hectare basis for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively, when BMPs were targeted
to 10% of the cropland with the highest sediment losses as compared to
application of BMPs to all cropland. The model also showed that fields that had
very high sediment and nutrient yields did not always have large impacts on
yields at the watershed level.
To
facilitate use of the model, the ANSWERS-2000 NPS decision support system was
developed (Wolfe et al. 1995). This ArcInfo based decision support system has a
knowledge-based system to advise the user on parameter selection and database
creation. The user interface also keeps track of BMP scenarios evaluated and
controls model output. The user interface links components and functions of the
ANSWERS-2000 modeling system in a manner that is reasonably transparent to the
user. A set of menus, prompts, helps, and rule-based functions guide the user,
but does not eliminate interaction with the system. Procedures are incorporated
to flag problems associated with incorrect data and report when system
constraints have been violated and provide appropriate corrective action. The
user interface consists of a main menu and secondary menus. The menus allow the
user to provide site-specific information for input parameters for the
ANSWERS-2000 model. The modeling-related tasks facilitated by the interface
include the following: selection of the land area of interest (watershed, farm,
or field) from a GIS coverage; automatic access to a soils parameter file with
options for replacing general parameter values with site-specific information;
developing the grid overlay of the watershed; calculation of topographic
characteristics; generating synthetic weather data if desired; assigning crop
and tillage parameter values; creation of the ANSWERS-2000 input data file;
running the model; displaying model output; applying alternative practices to
user-specified land areas; and comparing predicted output values for alternative
scenarios. In addition, a help function in the interface includes specific
information for the user on how to proceed with the different menu selections.
The ArcInfo based decision support system was converted to ArcView in 2000 and
2001. The new decision support system is called QUESTIONS
and ANSWERS.
In a
recent development, a groundwater component was added to ANSWERS-2000. This
version of the model was validated at the local, field and watershed scales. At
the local and field, it accurately predicted drainage below the root zone and
evaporation for different vegetative covers. At the watershed scale, it
accurately reproduced piezometric levels and trends across the watershed
(Bouraoui et al., 1997). It is not known if this version of the model simulates
nutrient transport.
References
Baun,
K., M. Bohn, R. Bannerman and J. Konrad. 1986. Application of the ANSWERS model
in a nonpoint source program. Final Report, EPA Grant No. R005750-01, Wisconsin
Dept. of Natural Resources, Madison, WI.
Beasley,
D. B., Huggins, L.F., and Monke, E.J. 1980. ANSWERS: A model for watershed
planning. Trans. of the ASAE 23(4):938-944.
Bottcher,
A. B., E. J. Monke, and L. F. Huggins. 1981. Nutrient and sediment loadings from
a subsurface drainage system. Trans. Of the ASAE 24(5):1221-1226.
Bouraoui,
F. 1995. Development of a continuous, physically-based, distributed parameter,
nonpoint source model. Ph.D. Dissertation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, VA. 330 p.
Bouraoui,
F. and T. A. Dillaha. 1996. ANSWERS-2000: Runoff and sediment transport model.
Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE 122(6):493-502.
Bouraoui,
F., G. Vachaud, R. Haverkamp and B. Normand. 1997. A distributed physical
approach for surface-subsurface water transport modeling in agricultural
watersheds. J. of Hydrology 203(1997):79-92.
Dillaha,
T. A. and D. B. Beasley. 1983. Sediment transport from disturbed upland
watersheds. Trans. of the ASAE 26(6):1766-1772,1777.
Dillaha,
T. A., D. B. Beasley, and L. F. Huggins, 1982. Using the ANSWERS model to
estimate sediment yields on construction sites. J. Soil and Water Conservation
37(2):117120.
Holtan,
H. N. 1961. A concept for infiltration estimates in watershed engineering. USDA-ARS
Bulletin 41-51, Washington, DC. 25 p.
Huggins,
L. F. and E.J. Monke. 1966. The mathematical solution of the hydrology of small
watersheds. Technical Report No. 1, Water Resources Research Center, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN. 130 p.
Montas,
H.J., C.A. Madramootoo. Using ANSWERS Model to Predict Runoff and Soil Loss in
Southwestern Quebec. Transactions of the ASAE 34 4 1991 1752-1762.
Paz, J.
O., M. L. Wolfe, S. Mostaghimi, and T. A. Dillaha. 1996. Impact of Channel
Erosion on Sediment Yield Prediction for Agricultural. ASAE Paper No. 962036,
ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Rewerts,
C. C., and B. A. Engel, 1991. ANSWERS on GRASS: Integrating a watershed
simulation with a GIS. ASAE Paper No. 91-2621, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Storm,
D. E., T. A. Dillaha, S. Mostaghimi, and V. O. Shanholtz. 1988. Modeling
phosphorus transport in surface runoff. Transactions of the ASAE 31(1):117127.
Wilson,
J. P. 1996. GIS-based Land Surface/Subsurface Modeling: New Potential for New
Models? In Proceedings, Third International Conference/Workshop on Integrating
GIS and Environmental Modeling, Santa Fe, NM, January 21-26, 1996. Santa
Barbara, CA: National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis. CD.
Wolfe,
M. L., T. A. Dillaha, S. Mostaghimi, C.D. Heatwole and W. D. Batchelor. 1995. A
farm scale water quality planning system for evaluating best management
practices. Final report submitted to the Chesapeake Research Consortium, Inc.,
under cooperative agreement NPS#1-A. Dept. Of Biological Systems Engineering,
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. 15 p.
Wolfe,
M. L., W. D. Batchelor, T. A. Dillaha, C.D. Heatwole and S. Mostaghimi. 1995.
Modeling the effects of farm management practices on off-site water quality.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Water Quality Modeling, April,
1995. Kissimmee, Florida.
Yoon, K.
S., A. Shirmohammadi, W. J. Rawls. 1995. Application of Continuous, Distributed
Watershed/water Quality Model (ANSWERS) on a Mixed Landuse Watershed ASAE Paper
No. 952402, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
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